BIOLOGI

BIG GROUP OF ORGANISM

HANDOUT BIOLOGY

BIG GROUP OF ORGANISM

In the past, when instrument for observations had not been developed, biologists recognized two big groups of organisms: animals and plants.After microscope had been invented by Antonie van Leewenhoek, the scientists’s eyes were open that there were microscope group of organism called microorganism.With the development of science and technology, there are several types of classifications, namely three, four, five and even six kingdoms.Among those classifications, the classifications of five kingdoms is generally used.It was made by Whitteaker in 1969.Whitteaker introduced organism classification into five big kingdoms namely Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Many organism don’t have nucleus membranes.They are called prokaryote.Prokaryote is included in Monera Kingdom. Organism that have nucleus membranes are called eukaryote.Eukaryote is grouped into four big groups, namely Kingdom Protista, Kindom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae, and Kingdom Animalia.

A.Monera Kingdom

Monera Kingdom consist of two big groups of organisms, bacteria and cyanobacteria.Both are included in prokaryote and unicellular organism.

Monera reproduces by binary fission. In addition to that, Monera also forms spore.The spore forming is particularly performed in a disadvantaged environmental condition.The formed spore is called endospore.

1)Bacteria

Ø  Most bacteria can move freely and don’t attach to one place.

Ø  Their movement is aided by flagella.

Ø  Heterotroph : living as decomposer residues of organism.Example : Escherichia coli .

Ø  Autotroph : which are able to synthesize their own food chemically.Such bacteria are called chemoautotroph, such as sulphuric bacteria

Some types of bacteria are useful for human beings such as Lactobacillus, that is used to make yoghurt.

2)Cyanobacteria

Also known as blue-green algae.They are called algae because they are able  to photosynthesize like algae in general, but cyanobacteria are grouped into prokaryotes.The forms of cyanobacteria are various ; some are unicellular and the others are colonies composed of some cells.

Different from bacteria, cyanobacteria have more complicated composition.Inside the body cell, there are chlorophylls for photosynthesize. Different from those in eukaryotes, the chlorophylls in cyanobacteria aren’t situated  in chloroplasts, since it doesn’t have any chloroplasts.In addition, there are others pigments such as red and brown pigements.Cyanobacteria can live in different places having different conditions, whether fertile or arid lands.Some examples of Cyanobacteria are Anabaena azollae  , Oscillatoria, and Spirulina maxima.

B.Protista Kingdom

Included in Eukaryote with unicellular or multicellular body that has not formed a tissue system.Protista is divided into two groups, namely protozoa and algae.In the waters, this organism group is known as plankton.Some plankton have plant characteristic (photosynthesis); they are called phytoplankton.However, others planktons have animal characteristic, which are called zooplankton.

Ø  Unicellular or colonial (many identical cells).

Ø  Eukaryota.

Ø  Motile and sessile.

Ø  Autotrophic and heterophic.

Ø  Reproduce asexually.

1)Protozoa

The organism in protozoa group have animal characteristic.

Protozoa are :

Ø  Heterotroph.

Ø  Unicellular.

Ø  Mobile.

Ø  Having vacuole.

Based on their moving apparatus, protozoa are grouped into several following groups :

a.      Rhizopoda (pseudopodia = fake feet) , such as Entamoeba histolytica  and Amoeba proteus.

b.      Ciliata, such as Paramecium sp, Balantidium, Stentor and Vorticella.

c.       Flagellata, such as Trypanosoma, Leishmania, Euglena virdis.

d.      Sporozoa (generating spores without moving apparatus), such as Plasmodium sp.

2)Algae

Ø  Unicellular or multicellular eukrayote.

Ø  Have chloroplasts so they can photosynthesize.This group consist of Euglena, Dinoflagellata, Diatomae groups.

Euglena can move freely using flagellas.Euglena always moves toward the light source.

Dinoflagellata live in the sea.Abundant number of algae can make the sea surface brcome reddish.

Diatomae, has hard skin composed of silica.

C.Fungi Kingdom

Ø  Eukaryote.

Ø  No chlorophylls

Ø  Composed of one or more cells

Ø  Reproduce by spore or thallus.

Ø  Saprophyte.

Ø  Heterotrophs.

Ø  Sessile.

Ø  Reproduce sexually and asexually.

Fungi has hyphae,the hyphae contain of cytoplasma and nucleus.

D.Plantae Kingdom

All plants belong to Plantae Kingdom.

The characteristic of plant are :

Ø  Having chlorophyll.

Ø  Multicellular organism.

Ø  Sessile.

Ø  Autotrophic.

Ø  Reproduce sexually.

Based on those characteristic, then the plant groups include :

Ø  Macroscopics algae.

Ø  Spore plants.

Ø  Seed plants.

1)Seed Plants

Algae reproduce with its spores or thallus.Macroscopics algae are grouped based on the color of their leaves, namley Rhodophyceae (red algae), Chlorophyceae (green algae), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae).Red alga, brown algae, and green algae live in the sea.

2)Spore Plants

Spore plants include moss adn ferns.Mosses are transforming plants from thallus plants into cormus plants.Mosses have following characterisctics :

Ø  Multicellular.

Ø  Green.

Ø  Living in humid palces.

Ø  Having neither roots, trunks nor leaves but already having parts like roots, trunks, and leaves.The roots on the moss are called rhizoids, which are used to attach and absorb water and mineral.Based on their body forms, moss are grouped into two groups, liverworts, and hornworts.

Ø  Reproducing with spores.

Ferns have following characterictics :

Ø  Reproduce with spores.

Ø  Live in a shady and humid or wet place.

Ø  Ferns reproduce asexually (vegetative) and sexually (generative).

3)Seed Plants

The seed plants include two big groups, namely open seed plants (Gymnospermae) and closed seed     plants (Angiospermae)

a.    Open seed Plants (Gymnospermae)

The open seed plants are plants whose seeds are not covered by fruit flesh, so that they can be seen from outside.Have strobilus as reproduction organ.

Grouped into seven groups :

Ø  Pteridospermae (extinct)

Ø  Bennettinae (extinct)

Ø  Cordaitinae (extinct)

Ø  Cycadinae        : The cycadinae class is diocious and has strobilus-like flowers,male and female strobilus in two different trees (male and female plants.)

Ø  Gnetinae          : Gnetum gnemon (Melinjo)

Ø  Coniferae         : Ever green,pines,podocarpus group.

Ø  Ginkgotinae    :   Gingko biloba               Tiongkok.

b.Angiospermae

The covered seed-bearing plants have seeds that are covered by fruit flesh.It consist of dicotyledons and monocotyledons.In the dicotyledons having two cotyledons.And in the monocotyledons having  one cotyledons.Has a complete flowers and some others has incomplete flowers.

E.Kindom Animalia

v  Not have chlorophyll.

v  Multicellular.

v  Mobile.

v  Heterotrophs.

v  Reproduce sexually.

Just like what he did with plants, Carolus Linnaeus also claasified the animals based on its body structure or morphology.Based on the existence of back bone, the animal can be grouped into two big groups, avertebrates/invertebrate and vertebrates.There are 13 group of animal :

v  Porifera (Avertebrata).

v  Coelenterata (Avertebrata).

v  Platyhelminthes (Avertebrata).

v  Nemathelminthes (Avertebrata).

v  Annnelida (Avertebrata).

v  Mollusca (Avertebrata).

v  Arthropoda (Avertebrata).

v  Echinodermata (Avertebrata).

v  Pisces (Vertebrata).

v  Amphibia (Vertebrata).

v  Reptilia (Vertebrata).

v  Aves (Vertebrata).

v  Mammals (Vertebrata).

BAGIAN-BAGIAN SEL

BAGIAN-BAGIAN SEL

Bagian-bagian sel adalah sebagai berikut :

1. Membran sel

Membran sel sering disebut juga membran plasma yang bersifat

semipermeabel. Artinya, membran sel hanya dpat dilewati oleh

zat tertentu, tetapi tidak dapat dilewati oleh zat lainnya. Zat

yang dapat melewati ialah air, zat yang larut dalam lemak dan ion

tertentu. Membran sel berfungsi pelindung sel dan pengatur

keluar masuknya zat dari dan ke dalam sel,dan menghasilkan protein.

2. Sitoplasma

Sitoplasma merupakan cairan yang mengisi sel yang mengandung

berbagai zat yang koloid. Fungsi kehidupan utama berlangsung di

sitoplasma. Di dalam sitoplasma terdapat organel-organel yang

melayang-layang dalam cairan kental. Koloid sitoplasma bukan

merupakan cairan yang serba sam (homogen), melainkan cairan

yang beraneka ragam (heterogen). Koloid ini terdiri dari air,

senyawa organik yaitu protein, gula, lemak, enzim, hormon, dan

garam mineral. Sitoplasma berfungsi sebagai tempat

berlangsungnya reaksi metabolisme sel.

Gambar 1.1 Inti sel

3. Inti sel (Nukleus)

Nukleus biasanya berbentuk oval atau bulat ang berada di

tengah-tengah sel. Di dalam inti sel (nukleus) terdapat

(nukleolus) dan benang kromosom. Cairan ini tersusun atas air,

protein , dan mineral. Kromosom merupakan pembawa sifat

menurun yang di dalamnya terdapat DNA (deoxyribonucleicacid)

atau RNA (ribonucleicacid). Inti sel (nukleus) diselubungi

membrane luar dan dalam yang terdiri atas nukleoplasma dan

kromosom. Nukleus berfungsi sebagai pusat pengatur kegiatan

sel.

4. Retikulum Endoplasma (RE)

Gambar 1.2
Retikulum Endoplasma

Retikulum endoplasma yaitu struktur benang-benang yang

bermuara di inti sel (nukleus). Ada dua jenis RE yaitu RE

granuler (RE kasar) dan RE Agranuler (RE halus). Retikulum

endoplasma berfungsi menyusun dan menyalurkan zat-zat ke

dalam sel (alat transportasi zat-zat dalam sel). Fungsi RE kasar

adalah mengumpulkan protein dari dan ke membran sel.

Sedangkan, fungsi RE halus adalah untuk mensintesis lipid,

glikogen (gula otot), kolesterol, dan gliserida. Pada RE kasar

terdapat ribosom dan RE halus tidak terdapat ribosom.

RE halus tidak terdapat ribosom,mengandung lemak.RE kasar terdapat ribosom,mengandung protein.

5. Ribosom (Ergastoplasma)

Ribosom berbentuk butiran-butiran bulat yang melekat

sepanjang retikulum endoplsma ada pula yang soliter (hidup

sendiri terpisah) yang bebas di sitoplasma. Ribosom berfungsi

sebagai tempat untuk sintesis protein.

6. Badan Golgi

Badan golgi merupakan kumpulan ruang, gelembung kecil, dan

kantong kecil yang bertumpuk-tumpuk. Pada sel tumbuhan badan

golgi disebut diktiosom. Badan golgi berfungsi sebagai alat

pengeluaran (sekresi) protein, dan lendir maka disebut organel

sekresi,juga jalan keluar atau masuknya material yang ada di sel.

Gambar 1.3
Mitokondria

7. Mitokondria (The Power House)

Mitokondria memiliki membran dalam dan luar, yang berbentuk

seperti cerutu dan berlekuk-lekuk (Krista). Di dalam mitokondria

berlangsung proses respirasi untuk menghasilkan energi.

Mitokondria berfungsi sebagai penghasil energi sehingga di beri

julukan “ The Power House”.

Gambar 1.4
Lisosom

8. Lisosom

Lisosom merupakn kantong kecil yang bermembran tunggal yang

mengandung enzim pencernaan. Lisosom berfungsi mencerna

bagian-bagian sel yang rusak atau zat asing yang  ke dalam

sel serta penghasil dan penyimpan enzim pencernaan seluler (mengeluarkan zat sisa keluar dari sel).

Gambar 1.5
Vakuola

9. Vakuola

Vakuola adalah ruangan yang terdapat di dalam sel. Pada sel

tumbuhan yang sudah tua, vakuola tampak berukuran besar dan

berisi cadangan makanan dan pigmen. Pada sel hewan, vakuola

berukuran kecil. Vakuola mengandung garam organik, glikosida,

butir pati, dan enzim. Adapun selaput pembatas antara vakuola

dan sitoplasma ialah tonoplasma.

10. Plastida

Plastida merupakan badan bermembran rangkap yang

mengandung membran tertentu. Plastida mengandung pigmen

hijau (klorofil) disebut kloroplas, sedangkan yang berisi amilum

disebut amiloplas. Plastida hanya terdapat pada sel tumbuhan.

Ada tiga jenis plastida yaitu lekoplas, kloroplas, dan kromoplas.

Lekoplas adalah plastida berwarna putih yang berfungsi sebagai

penyimpan makanan dan terdiri dari amiloplas (untuk menyimpan

amilum), elaioplas (untuk menyimpan lemak/minyak), dan

proteoplas (untuk menyimpan protein). Kloroplas yaitu plastid

yang memiliki pigmen waran hijau. Kromoplas yaitu plastid yang

mengandung pigmen, seperti karotin (kuning), fikodanin (biru),

fikosantin (kuning), dan fikoeritrin (merah).

11. Sentrosom

Struktur berbentuk bintang yang berfungsi dalam pembelahan

sel (mitosis maupun metosis). Organel ini hanya terdapat pada

sel hewan yang berfungsi aktif dalam pembelahan sel.

Sel tumbuhan dan sel hewan memiliki perbedaan yang cukup terlihat

dengan adanya perbedaan organel yang ada pada sel tersebut.

Gambar 1.6
Klorofil

12.Klorofil

Klorofil biasanya terdapat pada tumbuhan hijau.Lapisan pembungkus klorofil disebut dengan kloropas.Klorofil berfungsi untuk menghasilkan makanan/energi pada tumbuhan.

Perbedaan sel tumbuhan dan sel hewan yaitu:

Sel Tumbuhan :

Ø    Sel tumbuhan lebih besar ukurannya.

Ø    Bentuknya tetap.

Ø    Memiliki dinding sel.

Ø    Memiliki klorofil.

Ø    Memiliki vakuola yang besar.

Ø    Tidak memiliki sentrosom.

Sel Hewan :

Ø    Sel hewan lebih kecil daripada sel tumbuhan.

Ø    Tidak memiliki bentuk yang tetap.

Ø    Tidak memiliki dinding sel.

Ø    Tidak memiliki klorofil.

Ø    Memiliki vakuola tetapi kecil.

Ø    Memiliki sentrosom.

TAMBAHAN :

     Tiga bagian penting dari sel adalah  :

v  Sitoplasma (cairan sel)

v  Organel-organel sel

v  Membran sel :

Ø  Kepala : Hydrophilic.

Ø  Kaki : Hydrophobic.

      Nukleus adalah bagian terpenting dari sel.

LUNG DISEASES AND DISORDERS

Lung Diseases and Disorders

   Some lung diseases and disorders are caused by disorders in respiratory organs, caused by disease or poisonous gases.
   The following are explanations of some respiratory diseases and disorders :
   1. Caused by infection :
       a.  Bronchitis : An inflammation of mucus membrane in bronchi.
                               The symptom include cough followed by fever and pain in chest.
       b. TBC (tuberculosis) : A lung infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
       c. Pharyngitis : An inflammation of the pharynx caused by certain bacterial or viral infection.
                                The symptom may include pain when swallowing or sore throat.
       d. Tonsillitis : An inflammation of the tonsils caused by bacteria.
                             The symptoms may include sore throat, fever, and on muscles.
       e. Diphtheria : Is an infection caused by bacteria Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
                              It can cause heart complication followed by fever and sometimes can cause paralysis.
       f. The common cold (Selesma) : Condition which the nasal cavity is filled by mucus.
                                                        Runny nose, sneezing, and throat inflammation also occur.
                                                        Common colds are caused by viral infections in the upper respiratory
                                                        tract.
       g. Influenza : A runny nose, sneezing, throat inflammation, headache, fever, and a feeling of pain and
                            fatigue in the muscles. Influenza is caused by a viral infection in the upper respiration tract.
       h. Pneumonia : An inflammation of lung tissue, especially in the alveoli, caused by bacteria, viruses, and
                               fungi. The inflammation will cause the alveoli to fill with fluid and mucous, preventing
                               oxygen from being absorbed.
       i. Pleurisy : An inflammation of the double membranes surrounding the lungs (pleura).
                         The inflammation
                         is usually caused by infection of other organs close to lungs. The inflamed pleura
                         excessive fluid into the preural cavity so that the person infected feels pain during breathing.

  2. Caused by non infection :
      a. Asthma : Causes the muscles surrounding the bronchioles to constrict so much that air has difficulty
                         reaching the lungs. Asthma isn't contagious and is genetic. Dust, chemical substances,
                         pollen, fungi, cold air, and dead skin cells from animals are examples of allergens that can
                         trigger an asthma attack in susceptible people.
      b. Lung cancer : Often occurs on heavy smoker.
      c. Emphysema : A respiratory illness caused by swollen lung that leads to shortness breath.
      d. Rhinitis : An inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose. It result in the swollen nose and
                        generates of excessive amounts of mucous.